This refers to the period before European colonization. In Zimbabwe, it's the time before British South Africa Company rule, generally before the late 19th century. It encompasses the societies, kingdoms, and cultures that existed in the region before colonial influence became dominant. Think of Great Zimbabwe, the Mutapa Empire, and the various smaller chiefdoms – that's all pre-colonial.
Colonial: This is the period when Zimbabwe was under the control of a foreign power, in this case, Great Britain (through the British South Africa Company initially). It began in the late 19th century and lasted until 1980. The colonial period was marked by significant changes, including the imposition of European systems of governance, economic exploitation, and racial segregation. It's a period of significant disruption and transformation.
Independent: This marks the point at which Zimbabwe gained its independence from British rule. This occurred in 1980. Independence signifies the restoration of self-governance and the ability to chart its own course as a nation. It's a period of celebration and the beginning of a new chapter.
Post-independence: This refers to the period after Zimbabwe gained independence in 1980. It's the time from 1980 to the present day. This period is characterized by the challenges and opportunities of nation-building, including political, economic, and social development. It's an ongoing process of defining national identity, addressing past injustices, and working towards a better future.
Pre-Colonial States
Great Zimbabwe:
Flourished: before the 15th century, a powerful example of pre-colonial organization in Southern Africa."Great Zimbabwe": translates to "house of stones," reflecting its impressive architecture.Built: by the Shona people, who possessed wealth in livestock.Its stone capital: became the center of social, political, economic, and religious life.King: was known as the Mambo.Historical evidence: comes from oral traditions, Portuguese and Arab writings, and archaeological finds (stone structures, artifacts like tools, beads, and pottery).By 1200: a ruling class organized the population to build the massive granite wall.Chiefdoms: paid tribute to the Mambo, while some remained independent but connected through trade and marriage.Ruling class: controlled trade.Stone structures: served purposes of security, religion, prestige, and possibly labor organization.Decline: likely due to overpopulation, resource depletion, internal conflicts, emigration, and environmental factors. The story of Mutota leaving to form the Mutapa state is part of oral traditions.
Pre-Colonial Socio-Economic Organization:
Agriculture: Foundation of the economy, including crops like millet, sorghum, and maize, and livestock rearing.Trade: Extensive trade networks existed, connecting the region to other areas, including the coast, for goods like gold and ivory.Craft Specialization: Skilled craftspeople created pottery, tools, and other goods, showing economic diversification.Social Hierarchy: Societies were often structured with ruling classes, commoners, and sometimes enslaved people.Land Tenure: Land was typically held communally, with allocation by chiefs or communities.Tribute System: Chiefdoms often paid tribute to a central authority, demonstrating a centralized political and economic system.
Causes of Decline of Pre-Colonial States:
Overpopulation: Strain on resources, leading to shortages.Resource Depletion: Overuse of resources, like salt or fertile land, weakening the economy.Internal Conflicts: Power struggles and rebellions destabilizing states.Environmental Factors: Droughts and famines impacting agriculture and stability.External Pressures: Arrival of new groups or expansion of neighbors creating conflict.Emigration: Large-scale departures weakening the workforce and economy.
Influence of Pre-Colonial Civilizations on Contemporary Society:
National Identity: Great Zimbabwe is a powerful symbol of national pride.Cultural Practices: Many traditional practices continue to influence modern life.Language: Shona and Ndebele remain dominant languages.Land Issues: Pre-colonial land ownership patterns remain a significant issue.Spiritual Beliefs: Traditional beliefs continue to influence some aspects of life.Architectural Inspiration: Great Zimbabwe's architecture inspires modern design.
The Mutapa State
The Mutapa State, founded by Nyatsimba Mutota, emerged after his departure from Great Zimbabwe. Oral traditions suggest he left in search of salt or due to a succession dispute. Mutota's conquests in the Zambezi Valley earned him the title "Munhumutapa," meaning "Lord of Conquering."
Foundation and Expansion:
Mutota: established his capital, a "Zimbabwe," near the Utete River.He formed: an alliance with the Tavara High Priest, Dzivaguru.Upon Mutota's death: his son, Nyanhehwe Matope, took over, co-ruling with his half-sister Nyamhita (Nehanda).The Mutapa Empire: expanded to encompass a large territory between the Angwa and Manyame Rivers in the north, the Zambezi River, and the Musengezi and Mukumbura rivers in the west.
Mutapa Language and Customs:
The people: shared the Shona language, customs, and culture with those of Great Zimbabwe.The term "Shona": came into use later, representing a group of related dialects.They believed: in a god called "Mwari," who communicated through ancestral spirits and spirit mediums (Mondoros).Religious ceremonies: (bira) honored these spirits. Key spirit mediums were Dzivaguru, Nehanda, and Chaminuka.Family: was the core of society, emphasizing morality and social order. Many present-day social ills were reportedly uncommon.Laws: were well-developed for cultural matters, less so for commerce.Criminals: were often rehabilitated; the law focused on reconciliation and compensation. Murder required a life for a life, often involving a woman from the murderer's family being given to the victim's family.
The Mutapa Economy:
Trade: with Swahili and Portuguese traders had significant negative impacts.It disrupted: local agriculture as labor shifted to trade-related activities (hunting for ivory and mining gold).The trade: led to exploitation, with the Mutapa receiving goods of lesser value than the gold and ivory they traded.Portuguese interference: in Mutapa politics (through degradadores) caused succession disputes and weakened the state.Increased demands: for gold and ivory led to higher taxes and resentment among the people.This discontent: fueled breakaway states (like the Rozvi) and internal rebellions.Guns: acquired through trade were used in rebellions and succession disputes.Portuguese settlers: established trading posts (Sena, Tete) and prazeros (plantations), where they enslaved local people.Intermarriage: led to the emergence of a mixed-race population.Trade: fostered greed and social stratification.Islam and Christianity: threatened traditional religions.
Mining:
The Mutapa: mined gold, iron, copper, and silver.Copper: was used for jewelry and trade.Silver: was traded with the Portuguese.Iron: was used for tools and weapons.Gold: was used for jewelry and trade.The demand: for gold led even the king to demand tribute in gold.Mining: was dangerous, with the risk of collapses and flooding.The increased demand: from traders forced mining even during the rainy season, disrupting agriculture.Traders: interfered in Mutapa politics to gain access to mines.
Hunting:
Hunting: was traditional, providing meat and hides.They hunted: both small and large game using spears, arrows, knobkerries, dogs, nets, and snares.Hunting: became more trade-oriented with the demand for ivory and skins.Tribute: was often paid in these goods, making hunting a risky but necessary activity.
Tribute System:
The Mutapa: like many African states, had a tribute system, demonstrating control and authority.Tribute: was paid at various levels, from households to the king.Defeated chiefdoms: also paid tribute.
Mutapa Political Structure:
The king: (Mambo) led the state with advisors and ministers.Some wives: held official positions.The royal court: wore fine clothing and jewelry.A large army: patrolled, collected taxes, and expanded the empire.
The Rozvi State
The Rozvi State emerged from the wealth accumulated by the Rozvi under Changamire Dombo (around 1634), a powerful ruler who claimed divine parentage. His capital was at Thabazikamambo, near Bulawayo.
Rise and Expansion:
Dombo's wealth: and power grew, and by 1680, the Rozvi state stretched between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers, even including areas like Sena in Mozambique.The Rozvi Changamire: received tribute from smaller chiefs, demonstrating centralized authority.
Decline and Collapse:
The Rozvi State's decline: was accelerated by the Mfecane (a period of upheaval and migration).Nguni groups: fleeing from Shaka's Zulu kingdom, impacted the Rozvi.Zwangendaba's group: crossed the Limpopo and fought the Rozvi ruler Chirisamuru, weakening the state.Sebitwane's Kololo: further weakened the Rozvi in 1836.Mzilikazi: and his group, after moving west and then north, effectively destroyed the remnants of the Rozvi State between 1837 and 1840. By this time, the Rozvi State existed in name only.
The Ndebele State
The Ndebele State arose from the Mfecane period. Mzilikazi, initially a Khumalo chief under Zwide's Ndwandwe, eventually broke away and established his own kingdom.
Origin and Early Years:
Mzilikazi: after a period serving under Shaka, revolted and fled Zululand around 1821.He led: his followers north, raiding and incorporating other groups along the way.They settled: briefly at various locations (Ekuphumuleni, Emhlahlandlela, Mosega) before crossing the Limpopo.
Migration and Settlement:
The Ndebele: migrated in two groups, one led by Mzilikazi and the other by Gundwane Ndiweni.Mzilikazi's group: traveled westward, even reaching present-day Zambia, before returning to present-day Zimbabwe.The two groups: reunited near the Matopo Hills.Mzilikazi: established his capital at Bulawayo.
Ndebele Sphere of Influence:
The Ndebele: exerted influence over a wide area, divided into zones:
Area around Bulawayo: Directly administered, inhabited by Ndebele and assimilated Rozvi.Areas around Bulawayo: (indirect rule): Conquered Shona and Kalanga who paid tribute.Areas subject to raids: Parts of Zimbabwe, Botswana, and South Africa.Areas beyond raids: Northeastern Zimbabwe, too distant for regular military expeditions.
Ndebele Social System:
A caste system: existed, with three main strata:
Zansi: The original Khumalo group from Zululand, the aristocracy.Enhla: Sotho and Tswana groups absorbed before crossing the Limpopo.Hole: Conquered Shona and Kalanga, the commoner class.
Intermarriage: between classes was discouraged, especially at the top.Each group: had specific roles and social standing.Social mobility: was possible, particularly for the Hole class through military merit.
Ndebele Economic System:
A mixed economy: based on:
Pastoralism: Cattle were central to the economy, used for meat, milk, hides, draught power, and social transactions.Raiding: A key means of acquiring cattle, grain, and captives.Tribute: Subject communities paid tribute in cattle, grain, and other goods.Cultivation: Crops like millet, sorghum, and others were grown, though less emphasized than pastoralism.Trade: Limited trade with Shona (for tools) and whites (for guns).
Subsidiary activities: Pottery, basketry, mat making, fishing, hunting, and gathering.
The king: was the chief priest.Christianity: was introduced but not widely adopted until after Lobengula's death and the 1896 defeat.
Ndebele Political System:
Centralized system: with the king at the apex.The king: had absolute power, controlled the army, allocated land, and oversaw ceremonies.He ruled: with the help of a council divided into two houses:
Umphakhathi: Higher body of select indunas.iZikhulu: Larger body of chiefs and advisors.
The state: was divided into provinces, each under an induna.A large standing army: was organized into age regiments, stationed in regimental towns.
Lineage System and Succession:
The Khumalo lineage: was the ruling dynasty.Succession: was ideally patrilineal, with the eldest son of the king's senior wife of royal lineage inheriting the throne.Lobengula's ascension: was challenged due to his mother's Enhla status, but he eventually gained power.
Systems of Governance in Pre-Colonial States:
Great Zimbabwe: A centralized system with the Mambo (king) at the helm. A ruling class organized the construction of the monumental architecture and controlled trade. Chiefdoms paid tribute, indicating a hierarchical structure. While details are limited, archaeological evidence suggests a powerful and well-organized state capable of mobilizing significant resources.Mutapa Empire: Also centralized, with the Munhumutapa (king) as the supreme ruler. The empire was divided into provinces governed by appointed officials. A complex system of tribute existed, with various levels of payment. Religious leaders and spirit mediums played an influential role, sometimes even co-ruling.Rozvi State: Centralized under the Changamire. The Rozvi were known for their military strength, which was instrumental in establishing and maintaining their rule. Tribute was collected from subordinate chiefs. Information about the Rozvi's specific governance structures is somewhat limited, but they clearly had a hierarchical system with a strong military component.Ndebele State: Highly centralized and militaristic, reflecting its origins in the Mfecane. The King held absolute power. The state was divided into provinces led by indunas. Age regiments formed the core of the army, which played a crucial role in raiding, enforcing tribute, and maintaining order. A caste system influenced social and political roles.
Features of Pre-Colonial Governance Systems:
Centralized Authority: Most states had a strong central figure (king, chief) with considerable power.Hierarchical Structures: Societies were typically organized with a ruling class, commoners, and sometimes other social groups.Tribute Systems: Subject communities often paid tribute (goods, labor) to the ruling authority.Military Organization: Military strength was vital for defense, expansion, and enforcing control.Religious Influence: Religion and spiritual beliefs often played a role in legitimizing authority and shaping social norms.Oral Traditions: Knowledge, laws, and history were often transmitted orally.Limited Written Records: In most cases, pre-colonial societies did not have extensive written records, making it challenging to fully understand their systems.
Influence of Pre-Colonial Governance on Contemporary Society:
Traditional Leadership: The institution of chieftaincy continues to exist in many parts of Zimbabwe, although its role has evolved.Land Issues: Pre-colonial land ownership patterns and the legacy of colonial dispossession remain significant issues.Cultural Values: Some traditional values and social norms, influenced by pre-colonial systems, persist in contemporary society.National Identity: The achievements of pre-colonial states, like Great Zimbabwe, contribute to national identity and pride.Political Discourse: Discussions about governance in Zimbabwe sometimes draw on historical examples and pre-colonial models.Legal Systems: Some aspects of customary law, which has roots in pre-colonial practices, are still recognized within the legal framework.
