LEARNING OUTCOME 2

Period Definitions:

• Pre-colonial: The time before European colonization (roughly before the late 19th century), encompassing indigenous societies like Great Zimbabwe and the Mutapa Empire.
• Colonial: The period of British control (late 19th century to 1980), marked by foreign governance, economic exploitation, and racial segregation.
• Independent: Starting in 1980, when Zimbabwe gained independence from British rule, signifying self-governance.
• Post-independence: The era from 1980 to the present, focused on nation-building, development, and addressing historical legacies.

Pre-Colonial States

Great Zimbabwe:

• Flourished before the 15th century, a powerful example of pre-colonial organization.
• "Great Zimbabwe" translates to "house of stones," reflecting its impressive architecture.
• Built by Shona people wealthy in livestock.
• Stone capital was the center of social, political, economic, and religious life.
• King known as the Mambo.
• Historical evidence: oral traditions, Portuguese/Arab writings, archaeology (structures, tools, beads, pottery).
• By 1200, a ruling class organized massive granite wall construction.
• Chiefdoms paid tribute to Mambo; some independent but linked by trade/marriage.
• Ruling class controlled trade.
• Stone structures: security, religion, prestige, labor organization.
• Decline factors: overpopulation, resource depletion, conflicts, emigration, environment. Mutota's departure (oral tradition) is linked.

Pre-Colonial Socio-Economic Organization:

• Agriculture: Economy's foundation (millet, sorghum, maize, livestock).
• Trade: Extensive networks (gold, ivory) connecting to the coast.
• Craft Specialization: Pottery, tools, indicating economic diversity.
• Social Hierarchy: Ruling classes, commoners, sometimes enslaved people.
• Land Tenure: Typically communal, allocated by chiefs/communities.
• Tribute System: Demonstrated centralized political/economic control.

Causes of Decline of Pre-Colonial States:

• Overpopulation: Strained resources.
• Resource Depletion: Overuse of salt, fertile land.
• Internal Conflicts: Power struggles, rebellions.
• Environmental Factors: Droughts, famines.
• External Pressures: Arrival of new groups, expansion of neighbors.
• Emigration: Weakened workforce/economy.

Influence of Pre-Colonial Civilizations on Contemporary Society:

• National Identity: Great Zimbabwe as a symbol of pride.
• Cultural Practices: Influence modern life.
• Language: Shona and Ndebele dominance.
• Land Issues: Pre-colonial patterns remain significant.
• Spiritual Beliefs: Influence some aspects of life.
• Architectural Inspiration: Great Zimbabwe inspires modern design.

The Mutapa State

The Mutapa State, founded by Nyatsimba Mutota, emerged after his departure from Great Zimbabwe. Oral traditions suggest he left in search of salt or due to a succession dispute. Mutota's conquests in the Zambezi Valley earned him the title "Munhumutapa," meaning "Lord of Conquering."

Foundation and Expansion:

• Mutota established his capital, a "Zimbabwe," near the Utete River.
• He formed an alliance with the Tavara High Priest, Dzivaguru.
• Upon Mutota's death, his son, Nyanhehwe Matope, took over, co-ruling with his half-sister Nyamhita (Nehanda).
• The Mutapa Empire expanded significantly.

Mutapa Language and Customs:

• Shared Shona language, customs, culture with Great Zimbabwe.
• Believed in "Mwari," communicating via ancestral spirits (Mondoros).
• Key spirit mediums: Dzivaguru, Nehanda, Chaminuka.
• Family core of society; emphasis on morality.
• Law focused on reconciliation and compensation.

The Mutapa Economy:

• Trade with Swahili/Portuguese had negative impacts (disrupted agriculture, exploitation).
• Portuguese interference (degradadores) caused instability.
• Increased demands for gold/ivory led to higher taxes, resentment, rebellions.
• Guns used in disputes; Portuguese settlers established prazeros (plantations).
• Trade fostered greed, social stratification; threatened traditional religions.

Mining:

• Mined gold, iron, copper, silver for tools, jewelry, trade.
• Increased demand forced mining during rainy season, disrupting agriculture.
• Mining was dangerous; traders interfered for access.

Hunting:

• Traditional hunting provided meat/hides; became trade-oriented for ivory/skins.
• Tribute paid in these goods; hunting became risky but necessary.

Tribute System:

Like many African states, had a tribute system demonstrating control; paid at various levels.

Mutapa Political Structure:

• King (Mambo) led with advisors/ministers; some wives held official positions.
• Large army patrolled, collected taxes, expanded empire.

The Rozvi State

Emerged from wealth under Changamire Dombo (c. 1634), claiming divine parentage. Capital at Thabazikamambo.

Rise and Expansion:

• By 1680, stretched between Zambezi/Limpopo, including areas like Sena.
• Received tribute from smaller chiefs, showing centralized authority.

Decline and Collapse:

• Decline accelerated by Mfecane.
• Weakened by Zwangendaba's Nguni group fighting Chirisamuru.
• Further weakened by Sebitwane's Kololo (1836).
• Effectively destroyed by Mzilikazi's Ndebele (1837-1840).

The Ndebele State

Arose from Mfecane; Mzilikazi (Khumalo chief) broke from Zwide/Shaka.

Origin and Early Years:

• Mzilikazi revolted, fled Zululand (c. 1821).
• Led followers north, raiding/incorporating groups.
• Settled briefly before crossing Limpopo.

Migration and Settlement:

• Migrated in two groups (Mzilikazi, Gundwane Ndiweni).
• Reunited near Matopo Hills; Mzilikazi established capital at Bulawayo.

Ndebele Sphere of Influence:

• Zones: Direct rule (Bulawayo area), Indirect rule (tribute-paying Shona/Kalanga), Raided areas (Zim, Bots, SA), Areas beyond raids.

Ndebele Social System:

• Caste system: Zansi (aristocracy), Enhla (absorbed Sotho/Tswana), Hole (conquered Shona/Kalanga).
• Intermarriage discouraged at top; specific roles; social mobility possible (military).

Ndebele Economic System:

• Mixed economy: Pastoralism (cattle central), Raiding (cattle, grain, captives), Tribute, Cultivation, Limited Trade.
• Subsidiary activities: Pottery, basketry, fishing, hunting.

Ndebele Religion:

• Blend: Nkulunkulu (creator), Ancestral worship (Shona influence), Venda rainmaking (Njelele cult).
• King as chief priest; Christianity introduced later.

Ndebele Political System:

• Centralized: King with absolute power (army, land, ceremonies).
• Council: Umphakhathi (higher), iZikhulu (larger).
• Provinces under indunas; large standing army in age regiments.

Lineage System and Succession:

• Khumalo ruling dynasty; succession ideally patrilineal (senior wife's son).
• Lobengula's ascension challenged due to mother's Enhla status.

Systems of Governance in Pre-Colonial States:

• Great Zimbabwe: Centralized (Mambo), ruling class, tribute system, organized labor.
• Mutapa Empire: Centralized (Munhumutapa), provincial governors, tribute, religious influence.
• Rozvi State: Centralized (Changamire), military strength, tribute.
• Ndebele State: Highly centralized, militaristic (King absolute), provinces, age regiments, caste system influence.

Features of Pre-Colonial Governance Systems:

• Centralized Authority (King/Chief)
• Hierarchical Structures
• Tribute Systems
• Military Organization
• Religious Influence
• Oral Traditions
• Limited Written Records

Influence of Pre-Colonial Governance on Contemporary Society:

• Traditional Leadership: Chieftaincy continues.
• Land Issues: Legacy remains significant.
• Cultural Values: Persistence of some traditional norms.
• National Identity: Historical achievements contribute to pride.
• Political Discourse: Historical models sometimes referenced.
• Legal Systems: Recognition of some customary law aspects.