User Requirements: Statements that describe what a user needs or wants a system to do in order to achieve their goals. They are written in plain language that the target users can understand.
System Requirements: Detailed specifications for how the system will be built to meet the user requirements. These requirements are typically written for developers and engineers and use technical language.
Explanation
User requirements focus on the "what" - what the user wants the system to accomplish. They describe the features and functionalities that will be valuable to the user. System requirements, on the other hand, focus on the "how" - how the system will be built to deliver the functionalities outlined in the user requirements. They delve into the technical aspects like programming languages, hardware specifications, and security measures.
Example:
User Requirement: A library user wants to be able to search for books by title, author, or keyword.
System Requirement: The library search system shall be able to query a database of books based on user-provided keywords, titles, or authors and return a list of relevant books within 2 seconds.
Differences
Here's a table summarizing the key differences between user requirements and system requirements:
Feature
User Requirements
System Requirements
Focus
User needs and goals
System capabilities and constraints
Language
Plain language
Technical language
Audience
End users
Developers and engineers
Level of Detail
High level overview
Specific and measurable
Example
"The system should allow users to upload photos."
"The system shall support image uploads in JPEG and PNG formats, with a maximum file size of 10 MB."
FACT-FINDING METHODS
Fact-finding methods are essentially tools used to gather information and data in a structured way. This information is then used to understand a situation, identify problems, and develop solutions. They are widely used in various fields, including business analysis, system development, research, and more. Here's a breakdown of some common fact-finding methods:
Examining Documentation:
Definition: Reviewing existing documents, reports, and records to gain insights into current processes, policies, and data.
Advantages:
Easy access to information
Provides a historical perspective
Can be done independently
Saves time and resources
Creates an audit trail
Disadvantages:
Information may be outdated or inaccurate
Limited to what's documented
May not capture the complete picture
Relies on the quality of documentation
Can be time-consuming to locate relevant documents
Interviewing:
Definition: Conducting one-on-one or group discussions to gather information directly from stakeholders.
Advantages:
In-depth exploration of topics
Clarification and probing for details
Uncover unspoken issues or concerns
Build rapport and trust
Gain insights into perspectives and experiences
Disadvantages:
Time-consuming to schedule and conduct
Can be subjective based on the interviewer's bias
May not get honest responses due to social desirability
Costly if extensive interviews are required
Requires good interviewing skills
Observation:
Definition: Watching people perform tasks in their work environment to understand processes and identify potential issues.
Advantages:
Provides firsthand understanding of workflows
Identifies bottlenecks and inefficiencies
Captures nonverbal cues and body language
Complements data collected through other methods
Minimizes disruption to the workflow
Disadvantages:
Time-consuming to observe for extended periods
Reactivity: People may behave differently when observed
Observer bias can influence interpretation
Limited scope to specific tasks or processes
Ethical considerations regarding privacy
Questionnaires:
Definition: Standardized surveys with predetermined questions used to gather information from a large group of people.
Advantages:
Cost-effective way to collect data from a large sample
Efficient for gathering quantitative data
Allows for anonymity and honest responses
Easy to analyze and compare data
Minimizes interviewer bias
Disadvantages:
Limited follow-up or clarification opportunities
Low response rates can affect data validity
Question design can influence answers
May not capture complex issues or nuances
Not suitable for in-depth exploration
Research:
Definition: Reviewing existing studies, reports, and data related to the topic to gain background knowledge and industry trends.
Advantages:
Provides a broader context and understanding
Saves time and effort by leveraging existing knowledge
Identifies best practices and potential solutions
Strengthens the credibility of your findings
Helps avoid reinventing the wheel
Disadvantages:
Information might not be directly applicable to your specific situation
Quality and accuracy of research sources vary
May not address the latest developments
Time-consuming to find and evaluate relevant research
Requires critical thinking skills to assess research validity
IDENTIFYING INPUTS, PROCESSES, AND OUTPUTS
Inputs:
Definition: Inputs are the data or instructions that a program receives from the user or another source. They are the starting point for the program's execution.
Types/Examples:
User input: Data entered by the user through keyboard, mouse, touch screen, etc. (e.g., name, age, product selection)
Sensor data: Information gathered from physical sensors (e.g., temperature, light level)
File data: Information read from a file on the computer (e.g., configuration settings, image data)
Network data: Information received from another computer or device over a network (e.g., API response, web page content)
Processes:
Definition: Processes are the steps or instructions that the program follows to transform the input data into the desired output. They represent the core logic and functionality of the program.
Types/Examples:
Calculations: Performing mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, or complex equations. (e.g., calculating area, converting currencies)
Data manipulation: Sorting, filtering, searching, or modifying data based on specific criteria. (e.g., sorting a list of names alphabetically, filtering products based on price)
Control flow: Making decisions based on conditions and branching the program execution accordingly. (e.g., checking if a user is logged in, displaying different content based on choices)
Function calls: Executing pre-defined blocks of code (functions) to perform specific tasks. (e.g., calculating square root, formatting a string)
Outputs:
Definition: Outputs are the results generated by the program after processing the inputs. They are the information presented to the user or another system.
Types/Examples:
Displayed information: Data shown on the screen, console, or other visual interfaces. (e.g., calculated results, formatted reports, generated images)
Saved data: Information written to a file or database for future use. (e.g., user preferences, transaction history)
Returned values: Data sent back to another program or function that called it. (e.g., result of a calculation, confirmation of successful operation)
Device control: Sending signals to control external devices. (e.g., turning on a light, playing a sound)
Alternative Solutions to Business Problems: Off-the-Shelf
Here's a breakdown of three popular solutions for business software needs, along with their advantages and disadvantages to help you decide which might be the most suitable alternative:
Purchasing Off-the-Shelf Software:
Definition: This involves buying pre-built software that caters to general business needs or specific industry functions. It's a readily available solution requiring minimal customization.
Advantages:
Cost-effective: Often less expensive than in-house development or outsourcing.
Faster implementation: Quicker to deploy as customization is minimal.
Vendor support: Benefit from ongoing support and updates from the software vendor.
Proven functionality: Leverage established features and functionalities tested by a wider user base.
Reduced risk: Lower upfront investment compared to in-house development.
Disadvantages:
Limited customization: May not perfectly fit your specific business needs.
Integration challenges: Integration with existing systems might require additional effort.
Vendor lock-in: Dependence on the vendor for future updates and support.
Scalability limitations: May not adapt well to significant growth or changing business requirements.
Hidden costs: Ongoing subscription fees or maintenance costs can add up over time.
Outsourcing Software Development:
Definition: Hiring an external company to develop custom software tailored to your specific needs and functionalities.
Advantages:
Scalability and flexibility: Adaptable to accommodate changing business requirements.
Access to expertise: Leverage the expertise and resources of experienced developers.
Cost-effectiveness (potentially): May be cheaper than in-house development depending on project scope and location.
Focus on core business: Frees your internal resources to focus on core competencies.
Faster development (potentially): May offer faster completion for smaller projects compared to building a team in-house.
Disadvantages:
Communication challenges: Clear communication and project management are crucial for success.
Loss of control: Less direct control over the development process and project timeline.
Intellectual property concerns: Ensure proper ownership and licensing of the developed software.
Hidden costs: Project scope creep and additional expenses can occur.
Integration challenges: Integration with existing systems might require additional effort.
In-House Development:
Definition: Building the software within your organization using your own employees or a dedicated in-house development team.
Advantages:
Full control and customization: Complete control over the software's features and functionalities.
Scalability and flexibility: Adaptable to your specific needs and future growth.
Integration ease: Easier integration with existing systems within your organization.
Protection of intellectual property: You retain full ownership of the developed software.
Alignment with business goals: Ensures the software directly aligns with your business objectives.
Disadvantages:
Higher upfront cost: Requires significant investment in hiring developers, tools, and infrastructure.
Longer development time: Building from scratch takes longer than using existing solutions.
Resource dependence: Relies heavily on the skills and expertise of your development team.
Management complexity: Requires strong project management and leadership.
Risk of talent shortage: Finding and retaining skilled developers can be challenging.
WALKTHROUGHS
What are Walkthroughs?
A walkthrough is a structured meeting where a team collaboratively examines a process, document, software application, or task. It involves systematically stepping through each element, identifying potential issues, and discussing improvement opportunities.
Why are Walkthroughs Done?
Walkthroughs serve several purposes:
Early problem identification: By proactively examining processes or systems, walkthroughs can uncover potential problems before they cause significant issues.
Improved quality: Through collaborative review, walkthroughs can help identify and address inconsistencies, errors, or inefficiencies in design, functionality, or user experience.
Knowledge sharing: Walkthroughs facilitate knowledge transfer between team members with different expertise.
Enhanced communication: They encourage open discussion and collaboration, ensuring everyone is on the same page.
Stakeholder buy-in: Involving stakeholders in walkthroughs fosters a sense of ownership and increases buy-in for solutions.
User Involvement in Solving Business Problems
Including users in walkthroughs, particularly those involving software applications, workflows, or tasks they interact with, is crucial. Here's why:
User perspective: Users can provide valuable insights into how they actually use or experience a process, highlighting areas that may not be readily apparent to the development team.
Usability testing: Walkthroughs can act as a form of usability testing, uncovering potential difficulties users might encounter.
Improved solutions: User input helps ensure the solutions developed truly address their needs and pain points, leading to more user-friendly and effective outcomes.
Increased user satisfaction: By involving users in the problem-solving process, you can ensure solutions resonate with real-world needs, leading to higher user satisfaction.
FLOWCHARTS, ALGORITHMS, AND PSEUDOCODE
These three concepts are fundamental tools for planning and designing programs before diving into actual coding. Here's a breakdown of each:
1. Flowcharts:
Definition: A flowchart is a visual representation of a program's logic using a set of symbols like boxes, diamonds, and arrows. It shows the flow of execution, decision points, and processing steps.
How to Create:
Define the Start and End: Start with a "Start" symbol and an "End" symbol to mark the program's beginning and conclusion.
Identify Steps: Break down the program's logic into individual steps represented by rectangular boxes.
Decision Points: Use diamond shapes for decision points where the program needs to make a choice based on a condition. Connect outgoing arrows labeled with "Yes" and "No" (or true/false) based on the condition's outcome.
Connect the Steps: Connect the boxes and diamonds with arrows to show the flow of execution. Arrows typically flow from top to bottom, but conditional branches can deviate based on user input or calculations.
Add Inputs and Outputs: Optionally, include rectangles labeled "Input" to represent user input and "Output" to show the program's results.
Example: Here's a flowchart for a simple program that checks if a number is even or odd:
2. Algorithms:
Definition: An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that outlines the solution to a problem. It defines clear instructions for how to achieve a specific task, regardless of the programming language used.
How to Create:
Identify the Problem: Clearly define the problem you are trying to solve with your program.
Break Down the Steps: List the steps involved in solving the problem in a clear and concise manner.
Start
Enter a number
Is number Even?
Even?
Even?
End
Print Even Print Odd
No
Even?
Yes
Even?
13
Use Precise Language: While not formal code, the instructions should be unambiguous and leave no room for misinterpretation.
Example: Here's an algorithm for the even/odd checker program:
Pseudocode
Definition: Pseudocode is a way of writing an algorithm using keywords and phrases that resemble a programming language, but without the strict syntax rules of a specific language. It's more detailed than an algorithm but less formal than actual code.
How to Create:
Use Keywords: Use keywords like "if," "else," "while," "for," etc., to represent control flow and logic.
Mimic Programming Language: Structure the pseudocode in a way that resembles the programming language you plan to use, making the transition to actual coding smoother.
Focus on Readability: Maintain clarity and readability, ensuring anyone can understand the overall logic.
Example:
Here's pseudocode for the even/odd checker program:
ALGORITHMS
An algorithm is the foundation of any computer program. It's essentially a set of well-defined instructions that, when followed step-by-step, solves a specific problem or accomplishes a particular task. Here's a breakdown of its definition and key characteristics:
Definition
An algorithm is a finite sequence of precise instructions that provide a clear and unambiguous solution to a specific problem. It acts as a roadmap, guiding the computer through the necessary steps to achieve the desired outcome.
Characteristics of a Well-Defined Algorithm
Finitude: The algorithm must have a finite number of steps. It should eventually terminate and not run indefinitely.
Unambiguity: Each step in the algorithm should be clear and have a single interpretation. This ensures consistency and avoids confusion during execution.
Definiteness: The steps involved in the algorithm must be definite and leave no room for improvisation.
Input: The algorithm should clearly define the type of data it expects as input.
Output: The algorithm should produce a well-defined output that satisfies the intended purpose.
Effectiveness: The algorithm should be efficient and solve the problem in a reasonable amount of time and with appropriate resource usage.
Generality: Ideally, the algorithm can be applied to a range of similar problems with minor modifications.
Examples of Algorithms
Sorting Algorithms: These algorithms arrange data in a specific order (e.g., alphabetical, numerical).
Search Algorithms: These algorithms locate a specific element within a dataset.
Mathematical Algorithms: These algorithms perform calculations and solve mathematical problems.
Decision-Making Algorithms: These algorithms analyze data and make choices based on predefined conditions.
CONVERTING PROGRAM DESIGNS
Transforming program designs like algorithms and pseudocode into actual C++ code involves translating the high-level steps into the specific syntax and functionalities of the C++ programming language. Here's a breakdown of the process with examples:
Algorithm to C++ Code:
Example: Algorithm: Calculate the factorial of a number (n!).
C++ Code:
#include
using namespace std;
int main() {
int n, factorial = 1;
cout << "Enter a non-negative integer: ";
cin >> n;
if (n < 0) {
cout << "Error: Factorial is not defined for negative numbers." <<
endl;
return 1; // Indicate error
}
for (int i = 1; i <= n; ++i) {
factorial *= i;
}
cout << "The factorial of " << n << " is: " << factorial << endl;
return 0;
}
Explanation
The C++ code translates each step of the algorithm into corresponding programming constructs.
Variables (n and factorial) are declared to store the input number and the calculated result.
User input is handled using cin.
A loop iterates from 1 to n using a for loop.
Inside the loop, multiplication is performed using the * operator.
Error handling is added to check for negative input as factorial is not defined for negative numbers.
Pseudocode to C++ Code
Example: Describe the step-by-step process of calculating the factorial of a given non-negative integer.
Pseudocode:
C++ Code
#include
using namespace std;
int main() {
int number1, number2;
cout << "Enter the first number: ";
cin >> number1;
cout << "Enter the second number: ";
cin >> number2;
if (number1 > number2) {
cout << number1 << " is greater than " << number2 << endl;
} else {
cout << number2 << " is greater than " << number1 << endl;
}
return 0;
}
Explanation
Similar to the algorithm example, the pseudocode is translated into C++ syntax.
Variable declarations (number1 and number2) are done at the beginning.
User prompts and input reading are achieved with cout and cin.
An if-else statement implements the conditional logic for determining the larger number.
